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Paradiplomacy in Action: The Foreign Relations of Subnational Governments (Routledge Series in Federal Studies)

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The international activities of regions have attracted considerable political and scholarly attention in recent years. This has perhaps been most notable in Europe, where the protagonism of regions within the EU and the alliances among regions have generated a substantial literature, but the phenomenon has also marked federal states such as the USA, Australia and Canada. The motives, strategies and resources of substate governments in the international arena differ considerably, as the contributions to this volume show. So do the responses of sovereign states to what many of them still regard as an intrusion into their exclusive domain.

This activity is not new, as several of the contributions show, yet its resurgence in the late twentieth century is normally attributed to the effects of globalization and the rise of continental trading regimes such as the European Union (EU) and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFfA). These have served to erode the old distinction between domestic and international affairs and focused attention on the need for regions and cities to position themselves for global competition. From this perspective, there is a strong functional logic in regions' external projection, which is related to economic needs, to the spillover of their domestic competences into the international arena and in some cases to the need to manage ethnic or nationalist conflicts at their borders, with the security issues that these pose. Yet functionalism itself does not explain everything and we need to add political explanations derived from the goals and strategies of substate elites, building or promoting their region or, in some cases, preparing the way for national independence.

Responses on the part of national states also differ. In general it would be reasonable to say that states do not welcome the intrusion of subs tate actors into an area which is traditionally their reserved domain. Some see any external representation of regions as a threat to national sovereignty and integrity. On the other hand, state foreign policy has itself been transformed away from classical diplomacy and foreign ministries have themselves lost their monopoly of external action as large areas of domestic policy have been internationalized. States are therefore learning to live with a new dispensation in which they share roles with their regions and need to co-operate abroad. In some cases, matters are more sensitive than others, and a variety of patterns of conflict and co-operation emerge from the contributions.
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